The “Homeless”

Children†s health Many people call or write the National Coalition for the Homeless to ask about the number of homeless people in the United States. There is no easy answer to this question, and in fact, the question itself is misleading. In most cases, homelessness is a temporary circumstance — not a permanent condition. A more appropriate measure of the magnitude of homelessness is therefore the number of people who experience homelessness over time, not the number of â€Å"homeless people. † Studies of homelessness are complicated by problems of definitions and methodology. This fact sheet describes definitions of homelessness, methodologies for counting homeless people, recent estimates of homelessness, and estimates of the increase in homelessness over the past two decades. Additional resources for further study are also provided. As a result of methodological and financial constraints, most studies are limited to counting people who are literally homeless — that is, in shelters or on the streets. While this approach may yield useful information about the number of people who use services such as shelters and soup kitchens, or who are easy to locate on the street, it can result in underestimates of homelessness. Many people who lack a stable, permanent residence have few shelter options because shelters are filled to capacity or are unavailable. A recent study of 30 U. S. cities found that in 1998, 26% of all requests for emergency shelter went unmet due to lack of resources (U. S. Conference of Mayors, 1998). In addition, a review of homelessness in 50 cities found that in virtually every city, the city's official estimated number of homeless people greatly exceeded the number of emergency shelter and transitional housing spaces (National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, 1999). Moreover, there are few or no shelters in rural areas of the United States, despite significant levels of homelessness (Aron and Fitchen, 1996). As a result of these and other factors, many people who lack permanent housing are forced to live with relatives and friends in crowded, temporary arrangements. People living in unstable housing arrangements who lack a permanent place to stay are experiencing a kind of homelessness, but because they are not â€Å"literally homeless,† they will not be counted. Researchers use different methods to measure homelessness. One method attempts to count all the people who are literally homeless on a given day or during a given week (point-in-time counts). A second method of counting homeless people examines the number of people who are homeless over a given period of time (period prevalence counts). Choosing between point-in-time counts and period-prevalence counts has significant implications for understanding the magnitude and dynamics of homelessness. The high turnover in the homeless population documented by recent studies (see below) suggests that many more people experience homelessness than previously thought, and that most of these people do not remain homeless. Because point-in-time studies give just a â€Å"snapshot† picture of homelessness, they only count those who are homeless at a particular time. Over time, however, some people will find housing and escape homelessness while new people will lose housing and become homeless. Systemic social and economic factors (prolonged unemployment or sudden loss of a job, lack of affordable housing, domestic violence, etc. ) are frequently responsible for these episodes of homelessness. Point-in-time studies do not accurately identify these intermittently homeless people, and therefore tend to overestimate the proportion of people who are chronically homeless — particularly those who suffer from severe mental illness and/or addiction disorders and who therefore have a much harder time escaping homelessness and finding permanent housing. For these reasons, point-in-time counts are often criticized as misrepresenting the magnitude and nature of homelessness. There is another important methodological issue that should be considered. Regardless of the time period over which the study was conducted, many people will not be counted because they are not in places researchers can easily find. This group of people, often referred to as â€Å"the unsheltered† or â€Å"hidden† homeless, frequently stay in automobiles, camp grounds, or other places that researchers cannot effectively search. For instance, a national study of formerly homeless people found that the most common places people who had been literally homeless stayed were vehicles (59. 2%) and makeshift housing, such as tents, boxes, caves, or boxcars (24. 6%) (Link et al. , 1995). This suggests that homeless counts may miss significant numbers of people who are literally homeless, as well as those living in doubled-up situations. There are at least four widely used national estimates of homelessness. Many are dated, or based on dated information. For all of the reasons discussed above, none of these estimates represents â€Å"how many people are homeless. The most widely cited example of a point-in-time estimate is the approximately 500,000-600,000 homeless people found in shelters, eating at soup kitchens, or congregating on the street during one week in 1988 (Burt and Cohen, 1989). 700,000+/night; 2 million/year (1999) The 500,000-600,000 estimate is sometimes updated by using a projected rate of increase of 5% a year to produce an estimate of over 700,000 people homeless on any given night, and up to 2 million people who experience homelessness during one year (National Law Center on Homelessness and Poverty, 1999). In 1990, a national telephone survey identified formerly homeless people and produced life-time and five-year prevalence estimates of homelessness. Seven percent of the respondents reported that they had been literally homeless at some point in their lives, and three percent reported being homeless at some point between 1985-1990 (Link et al. ,1994). The Clinton Administration's Priority Home! The Federal Plan to Break the Cycle of Homelessness uses this data, corrected to include children, to estimate that between 4. 95 million to 9. million people (with a mid-point of 7 million) experienced homelessness in the latter half of the 1980s. A second study was undertaken in 1994 to refine the analysis with more explicit definitions and detailed information. This study found that 6. 5% (12 million adults nationwide) of the respondents had been literally homeless at some point in their lives, and that 3. 6% (6. 6 million adults nationwide) of the respondents had experienced homelessness (literal or doubled up) between 1989-1994 (Link et al. , 1995). Thus, it appears that 12 million of the adult residents of the U. S. ve been literally homeless at some point in their lives. Dennis Culhane's study of turnover rates in shelters in New York City and Philadelphia is another example of a period prevalence count. This study revealed that 3% of Philadelphia's population used the public shelter system between 1990 and 1992, and that in New York, 3% of the population received shelter between 1988-1992 (Culhane et al. , 1994). The Culhane study also found that in New York City, a single shelter bed accomodates four different people in the course of a year; in Philadelphia, each bed accomodates six different persons per year. Because this study did not include persons in privately funded shelters or on the streets, the findings underestimate homelessness in both cities. A study by Martha Burt compared these rates with data from seven other jurisdictions (Burt, 1994). The comparison showed that the New York City and Philadelphia rates fall well within the range of data from other regions of the country. One limited measure of the growth in homelessness is the increase in the number of shelter beds over time. A 1991 study examined homelessness â€Å"rates† (the number of shelter beds in a city divided by the city's population) in 182 U. S. cities with populations over 100,000. The study found that homelessness rates tripled between 1981 and 1989 for the 182 cities as a group (Burt, 1997). A 1997 review of research conducted over the past decade (1987-1997) in 11 communities and 4 states found that shelter capacity more than doubled in nine communities and three states during that time period (National Coalition for the Homeless, 1997). In two communities and two states, shelter capacity tripled over the decade. These numbers are useful for measuring the growth in demand for shelter beds (and the resources made available to respond to that growth) over time. They indicate a dramatic increase in homelessness in the United States over the past two decades. By its very nature, homelessness is impossible to measure with 100% accuracy. More important than knowing the precise number of people who experience homelessness is our progress in ending it. Recent studies suggest that the United States generates homelessness at a much higher rate than previously thought. Our task in ending homelessness is thus more important now than ever. The National Coalition for the Homeless provided leadership in the successful effort to pass the Stewart B. McKinney Homelessness Assistance Act in 1987. Since then, NCH has continued to monitor the reauthorization and appropriations process for McKinney Act programs and other programs affecting poor and homeless people. NCH supports legislation to provide an adequate supply of affordable housing, jobs which pay a living wage, and universal access to health care. Legislative Alerts Learn about homelessness-related legislation being considered by Congress and what you can do about it. General Homelessness Issues NCH's 2000 Federal Legislative Agenda This document provides an overview of NCH's federal legislative priorities for 2000, including housing, health, education, income, and civil rights. The McKinney Act The Stewart B. McKinney Homeless Assistance Act was the first — and remains the only — major federal legislative response to homelessness. This fact sheet provides a brief history of the McKinney Act, describes its content and evolution, and summarizes recent trends in McKinney Act legislation and funding. Funding and Budget Issues Appropriations for Federal Homeless Programs Table of FY95-00 funding levels for homeless programs. FY2001 Budget and Homelessness This page summarizes the most recent budget and appropriations legislation and provides NCH's recommended funding levels for federal homeless programs. Housing and Shelter Issues Community Housing Investment Trust Discusses key provisions of an NCH-sponsored initiative to create one million units of high-quality, affordable rental housing for persons whose annual incomes are less than the minimum wage, including persons with disabilities, elder age, or low-wage incomes. McKinney Side by Side Side by Side comparison of major components of proposals to amend HUD homeless legislation (July 2000). Housing and Welfare Reform: Background Information Prepared by the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, this paper explores the impact of welfare policy on housing and the impact of housing policy on welfare. Welfare Issues Welfare to What: Early Findings on Family Hardship and Well-Being Published by the Children's Defense Fund and the National Coalition for the Homeless in November 1998, this report examines the impacts on families two years after the signing of the federal welfare law. It presents national and local findings and compiles more than 30 state and local studies. The Executive Summary is available at http://nch. ari. net/w2wexec. html. The full report may be downloaded below. Welfare to What (Full Report – 246K) Note: To view this file, you will need Acrobat Reader. Using TANF to Reduce and Prevent Homelessness: Effective Practices and Strategies. Published in May 2000, this paper was written to provide specific examples of how states and communities have used TANF productively to reduce and prevent homelessness. Other Internet Resources on Welfare and Poverty Links to online organizations and sources of information on poverty and welfare. Education Issues School Segregation and Homeless Children and Youth This overview summarizes available information on integrated homeless education programs (those programs that help homeless children enroll, attend, and succeed in mainstream schools) and segregated classrooms or schools (those that separate homeless children from housed children on the basis of their homelessness alone). For more detailed information, including program examples, please see School Segregation and Homeless Children and Youth: Questions and Answers Reauthorization of the McKinney Act's Education for Homeless Children and Youth Program Congress will consider legislation to reauthorize the McKinney Act's Education of Homeless Children and Youth (EHCY) program in 1999. The EHCY program works to ensure homeless children and youth's enrollment, attendance, and success in school. This page provides up-to-date information on reauthorization for advocates, teachers, service providers, and administrators, including analyses and summaries of reauthorization legislation, links to relevant committees, and more detailed action alerts. America's Homeless Children: Will Their Future Be Different? A Survey of State Homeless Education Programs The McKinney Act is responsible for significant improvements in homeless children's access to public education. However, increasing homelessness among families with children and a simultaneous reduction in federal funding threatened the progress that states and communities had made in helping homeless children and youth enroll, attend, and succeed in school. This 1997 40-state survey examines the accomplishments and challenges of homeless education programs faced with increasing demand for services and decreasing resources. Making the Grade: Successes and Challenges in Educating Homeless Children and Youth The 1996 Position Document of the National Association of State Coordinators for the Education of Homeless Children and Youth. This report summarizes the history and progress of efforts to educate homeless children and youth, profiles 30 selected state homeless education programs, and offers recommendations for improving the McKinney Education for Homeless Children and Youth program. Health Issues No Open Door: Breaking the Lock on Addiction Recovery for Homeless People This NCH report examines what has been learned in the last decade about the barriers that homeless people face in accessing addictive disorder services and the treatment and recovery interventions that are effective with the homeless population. The Projects for Assistance in Transition from Homelessness (PATH) Program Describes the function and accomplishments of the McKinney Act's Projects for Assistance in Transition from Homelessness (PATH) program, as well as NCH's recommendations for expanding and strengthening PATH. Homeless Treatment and Recovery Competitive Grant Program Describes NCH's initiative to reauthorize and appropriate funds for a national competitive grant program to develop and expand addictive and mental disorder treatment and recovery opportunities for homeless persons with addictive and mental disorders Increased Demand, Decreased Supply: Challenges to the McKinney Act's Health Care for the Homeless Program Changes in the health care marketplace, in public policy, and in the face of homelessness itself are creating new demand for health services for homeless people according to this study published by the National Health Care for the Homeless Council and the federal Bureau of Primary Health Care.

HSC Speeches Essay Essay

â€Å"Great speeches do not merely address a contextual purpose; they also touch the hearts and minds of those who hear them†. Evaluate to what extent the statement above supports your understanding of the speeches set for study in Module B: Critical Study of Texts. Words in their most basic forms are just unintelligible sounds. Yet with the combination of emotion and verve, only then do they become meaningful. Words which not only combine emotions but also contextual misunderstandings and inequity are a recipe for the invoking of spirit. Words are the key to communication, a commonality throughout each culture, nation and religion. Though the sounds they create are different, the true intertwined emotion and feeling behind these words weave a tapestry of both global disunion and union. Words are not restricted to a language or a sound, they are infinite in there meaning and purpose. Nevertheless this doesn’t change what it invokes in the people who either hear or read it. Rather it inspires them. Contrary the popular belief, feminism is a first world idea. Margaret Atwood, a lifelong feminist, born in Canada, a country who gives females the same opportunities as men, is the epitome of a first world woman. It almost appears she is the antithesis of her global sister Aung Sun Suu Kyi. A woman, born in Burma, raised by political activists and placed under house arrest for 6 years for her movements towards equity. The importance of their upbringing though makes a resounding impact upon the audience, since their points are identical. Though they may be in different stages, the end goals are one. This display of unity spanning across nations, cultures and time creates a timeless foundation for the solidarity of women. The power of a nation and society on any individual no matter the gender has insurmountable influence upon the youth. Atwood’s ‘Spotty Handed Villainesses’ is a speech written to inspire women that it’s okay not ‘to be good all the time.’ Why should women be depicted as one dimensional characters, why is there a seemingly an innate fear amongst authors to give a female character a legitimate personality, flaws and all? She encourages readers to look past stereotypes by addressing their almost inbred mental fears. For the bad behaviour of women have no shades of grey. It is black and it is white and the lines are clearly drawn. Lest we forget when a women â€Å"was good she was very good and when she was bad she was horrid.† This tenor is also present within Suu Kyi’s speech ‘Keynote Address at the Beijing World Conference on Women’, the notion of women constantly  having to justify their own existence. These stereot ypes, nursed into infants until their adulthood reflects this symbolism awakens a sense of epiphany within the audience. The traditional belief that the patriarchal paradigm is the reason for life and the justification of living, with the instilled belief that â€Å"the dawn rises only when the rooster crows.† Atwood & Suu Kyi’s words strike us, for they have found our commonality, our youth. The commonality of folk tales, which were supposedly told to enforce morals and values to us, instead enforced boundaries. These boundaries which we were too young to understand or even acknowledge solidified the link between us. These boundaries hinder the true identity of women and their position in society, For isn’t the sole idea, a commonality between all women? The contextual purpose is addressing the notion of why women cannot monopolise the â€Å"true traits† of men; for they are men and men alones traits. Yet to give these identical traits to a woman, spells her immediate downfall. Why cannot women stand on their own two god given feet, and be recognised without representing th e traits of their male counterparts. This lone concept is the link, which encourages a movement within the hearts and minds of the readers, the movement to not become a stereotype. Though both speeches address the commonality of inequity, their words emanate and establish an emotion and bond meant to reach inside an individual and shock them. Their meaning rises above the words they choose to address the concept; thus manifesting in the readers psyche. The truth of the matter is that we are all spotted. Like the wicked lady Macbeth, though these spots cannot be seen, they are â€Å"indelible†. They shall never be removed, yet though they are there it doesn’t mean they should be given the power to determine a life. To be spotted isn’t ‘bad’; to be spotted is being real, and this stigma around female characters, that they are somehow more realistic than real women, the readers, is a detrimental mistake. These very stereotypes are found in every novel, article and song we either read or listen to. Whether knowingly or not women have been subordinated in their source of comfort, at their most vulnerable. Women have â€Å"no sole protector†, they are on their own and it’s time for them to recognise this and stand up for themselves, no matter their circumstance. Society is the downfall of equity and an encumbrance to the rise of feminism across the globe. These are the strength of Atwood’s and Suu Kyi’s words. These are the words that  inspire and touch the minds and hearts of those who hear them. They have grasped a contextual issue faced in both countries; female inequity, and created a movement amongst complete strangers across the globe. They have done this though creating a bond with the readers by their words. They are meant to be personified and expanded. This is why they earned the title of being a great speech.

No such thing as one best way summary Essay

a. What are the authors trying to do in writing this? Whilst this is not empirical research and relies solely on theoretical arguments, Burns does demonstrate the shortcomings of the change contingency model. He attempts to show that organisations have choices which are not utilised which results in significant, negative, implications. b. What are the authors saying which is relevant to what I want to find out? Change could be planned but only in a stable environment. Change, in this situation would be, incremental, not transformational, and ignorant of a more direct approach and presumes that common agreements are reached. However Burns suggest the emergent approach is more important in turbulent environments and situations. He also argues that change is part of learning not just the opportunity to create something new. This idea does link to the contingency theory such that organisations and leaders can manipulate contingencies to align with their own styles and agendas. This is a negative aspect which could be viewed as morally incorrect. Change approaches must match the environment and situation though exercising choice base on alternatives not a single best way. c. How convincing is the author’s argument? Although not empirically based this is a good argument. Burns has a very good reputation in the field of change leadership/management. However it would be necessary to find additional evidence to support or counter these views. The RAVEN test is passed as there is no empirical research therefore we can imply that this paper is simply an academic view. d. In conclusion, what use can I make of this? This could be linked to the paper by Zhu et al to show how transformational leadership can be a good approach to ensure moral decision making and actions are present when dealing with emergent change as this requires a number of contingencies which leaders and followers could use too support long term organisational change.

Effects of Quantitative Easing on Food Prices Research Paper

Effects of Quantitative Easing on Food Prices - Research Paper Example Eventually, this leads to inflation. This paper demonstrates the effects that come about because of employing quantitative easing on food prices. Rise in food prices One of the established effects of quantitative easing is that it results to a rise in food prices. The reason behind this fact is that quantitative easing entails making of more money in order to assist in solving the situation affecting the economy. However, making of more money contributes in undervaluing the present ones in the economy of a country. Therefore, the country tends to experience hyperinflation. The inflation results to a rise in various commodities. Some of these commodities include raw materials associated with the production of food. Rise in raw materials especially in the agricultural sector forces most of the producers to increase the selling price of their products. Eventually the final consumer ends-up buying food at a higher price than usual. In every financial year, food producers tend to look on when they can be able to make more profits from the price of their commodities. Therefore, the producers are forced to increase their prices with an aim of avoiding incurring losses when inflation occurs especially because of quantitative easing (Duncan 162). ... Most of the small-scale farmers stops farming because of rising prices of various agricultural commodities ending up reducing their production. When most of the small-scale farmers fail to produce more goods as expected, the price of food in the market rises. In some cases, most of the small-scale farmers’ stops enacting agricultural related activities because of farming difficulties due to rise in prices of commodities. This creates a high deficit on the farm products hence a rise in food prices. Rise in international prices of raw materials and agricultural products Apart from the small-scale farmers being affected by inflation because of quantitative easing, large-scale farmers also tend to experience the same effects. Apart from the above outlined examples, showing effects of inflation due to quantitative easing, inflation also causes a rise in the import price index. This means that various raw materials related to agriculture like farming inputs that include fertilizers tend to rise in their prices. Some of other imported agricultural inputs that tend to rise in their prices because of inflation include farming machines and chemicals. Moreover, some of the seeds imported from other countries rise in their costs due to inflation. Failure of farmers to access the inputs contributes to low production of food hence rise in their prices. High cost of inputs makes most of the farmers fail to buy much of the products contributing to a decline in their activities. A decline in farming activities means that the production of law materials will eventually be low. This contributes in making the prices of the produced food rise. Rise in cost of activities in food manufacturing industries There is established evidence that inflation cause

Procurement & Contracts Coursework Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5750 words

Procurement & Contracts Coursework - Assignment Example 57). One of the key attributes of PPP is that it not only facilitates public-private partnerships during the construction phase, but it provides for post-construction services to be managed by a private agency. It has been argued that by taking this approach, the construction design is usually conducted contemplating subsequent services which ultimately lowers the cost of services. Moreover, the nature and duration of the PPP encourages a relationship of trust and facilitates the free flow of information (Hoppe & Schmitz, 2013). Likewise, Private Finance Initiative (PFI), project procurement, a form of PPP, is particularly important when the public budget is constrained by economic difficulties such as the current economic downturn. PFI is a method by which the public sector secures â€Å"value for money† and the private sector â€Å"service provider† assumes the risks associated with the project (Akintoye, Hardcastle, Beck, Chinyio, & Asenova, 2003, p. 461). Given that the global economic downturn has impacted the UK government’s ability to deliver and meet the demands for health services, a PFI-PPP procurement route is the more innovative and least costly option over traditional procurement routes. ... Traditional procurement routes will also be discussed. The Principles of Public-Private Partnership Procurement Definition PPP is defined by the OECD as: †¦an agreement between the government and one or more private partners (which may include the operators and the financers) according to which the private partners deliver the service in such a manner that the service delivery objectives of the government are aligned with the profit objectives of the private partners and where the effectiveness of the alignment depends on a sufficient transfer or risk to the private partners (OECD, 2008, p. 17). PPP therefore takes the involvement of the private sector to more proactive level and does not merely involve a limited contractual arrangement. PPP is best understood when compared to traditional procurement routes. PPP vs Traditional Procurement Routes Instinctively, the concept of PPP invokes ambivalence over the idea of the private sector becoming involved in the construction and man agement of public infrastructure. However, as Grimsey and Mervyn (2007) point out: †¦the old command and control structures of the public sector are breaking down and are being replaced by interrelationships between government and private sector entities (p. 171). Although traditional procurement routes use the private sector, PPPs can be distinguished in a significant way. Traditional procurement routes usually involve private entities constructing roads, hospitals, schools, public buildings and schools and so on. Private companies also manage and maintain the infrastructure. However, with PPPs, rather than use individual agreements, the agreements are combined in

Role of Leader Managing Conflict Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Role of Leader Managing Conflict - Essay Example Thus, leadership is defined as the ability to influence a group of people towards the achievement of organizational goals (Robins, Odendaal and Roodt, 2001). This study therefore seeks to critically discuss the role of leader in managing conflict using real examples and case studies from a clinical area. An example is drawn from Riyadh Military Hospital which had encountered certain conflicts when it embarked on a drive to implement some changes in its operations to improve efficiency. The hospital has been experiencing inefficiency of qualified nurses related to high rate of turnover between expertise, because of increased work load, increased duties and responsibilities of bedside nurses and lack of support and motivation. There was also a need to improve the performance of new nurses. The leader nursing staff including sister in charge, head nurse and admin tasked to take the lead in finding lasting solutions to this problem which meant that some changes were to be put in place. C hange was normally met with resistance because of different factors like lack of budget and military role. This essay seeks to critically analyze the different types of conflicts as well as the approaches that can be implemented in order to resolve conflicts in a clinical set up. Analysis of scenario: In the scenario under consideration, there is great likelihood of conflict among the sister in charge, head nurse and the admin that have jointly resolved to take such measures that would improve the competence of new nurses in their work and reduce the employee turn over rate. The fundamental point of consideration in this paper is the different types of conflicts that can occur between the three staff members that have taken the charge. The sister in charge, head nurse and the administrator have their individualistic consents and opinions that find their origin in their respective roles in the organization structure. The head nurse has the most direct interaction with the nurses that are practically facing the problem of lack of training and education. In order to reduce the employee turnover, the head nurse has to pay due consideration to the collective opinion of the nurses that practically work in the hospital. Therefore, the head nurse has little choice but to favor the mutual consent of all working nurses in order to retain the workforce and develop team work. The sister in charge, on the other hand, is sandwiched between the head nurse and administrator. Therefore, the sister in charge has to pay due respect to the concerns of both head nurse and the administrator and is also supposed to introduce and get acknowledged her individualistic opinion. The administrator is loaded with the responsibility of managing the resources of the hospital and allocating the funds to right activities that would benefit the staff as a whole. The administrator can not blindly approve the request raised by the head nurse or the sister in charge. He assumes the responsibility to explain to the owners any action that he takes and justify the allocation of funds to individual activities. Owing to the difference of roles and responsibilities of the three staff members that have taken the charge to resolve the matter of increased employee turnover and lack of competence in the nurses, they have their indivi

American Banking Industry Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

American Banking Industry - Research Paper Example As a point of fact, banks are often and highly criticized due to being so driven towards profit maximization. Given this, banks often neglect its responsibility to the people as well as the environment. That is to say, banks may be directly or indirectly participating in harming the human beings and nature.   Review of Related Literatures This section aims at presenting an overview of the kinds of literature related to the topic of American banking industry. ... The expediency of this section is to help grasp an outlook on how to understand the topic under study. In this regard, this review of related kinds of literature is divided and categorized into the following segments which are: a) History of Banking Industry in America, b) The Role of the Banking Industry in the Social, Economic, and Political Setting of America, c) The Domestic and International Ethics, d) Ecological and Natural Resources, e) The Social Issues Faced by American Banking Industry, and f) The Corporate Stakeh olders Response to the Issues Confronting the American Banking Industry. a) History of Banking Industry in America According to Goyal and Joshi (2011), 2000 BC marks the earliest record of banking activity. During this era, the merchants lent money to the traders as well as farmers in Assyria and Babylonia. In this regard, it can be said that in the entire world, the industry of banking is among the oldest (Goyal & Joshi, 2011). In the United States of America, the earliest record of modern commercial banking industry had started in the year 1782 in Philadelphia (Mishkin & Serletis, 2010). According to Mishkin and Serletis (2010), the Bank of North America had been a success which triggered other banks to operate in America. On the one hand, 1791 marked the charter of Bank of the United States. This bank had functioned as a private bank and at the same time, a central bank that had an obligation to the economy of the whole society. However, its charter expired in 1811 which had lead to the establishment of another bank in 1816. Such charter of the Second Bank of the United States came to end in 1836 as Andrew Jackson rejected its rechartering.

Research Method SPSS Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Research Method SPSS Report - Essay Example Consequently, the employed people are able to visit the gymnasium more than those who are unemployed. This means that the hypothesis was not true. The hypothesis here is that the average customer satisfaction increases with the increase in age groups. We therefore run the linear correlation analysis using Q2 and Q7. The results are as shown below: The coefficient of linear relationship between Q2 and Q7 is - 0.149 by Kendall’s tau_b and -0.172 by Spearman’s Correlation. This means that there is a negative linear correlation between the two variables. It implies that the increase in age groups reduces the level of customer satisfaction. Consequently, the people in the low age group are more satisfied compared to people in the older groups. The hypothesis is not true. The linear regression gives a linear regression value of 0.042. It shows that the willingness to pay increases with the increase in the weekly income in the ratio of 0.042. For a person earning a net income of  £300, he or she falls is willing to pay between 70 and 75 from the reading on the plotted output. The multiple regressions shows that the significance of the weekly income to the willingness to pay is 0.671while the bivariate linear regression shows a lower coefficient of value of 0.042. There is a wide variance between the two

Toys Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Toys - Essay Example It is obvious that the trend in girls’ toys is to be pink and beauty related, whereas the boys’ toys are related to technology and building. It seems that toy companies nowadays make distinctions for us over which toys are suitable for girls and which for boys. However, Francis does not take into the consideration of supply and demand interaction in the market. Looking at the supply side, toy companies only produce their products that are selling in the market. Companies are the chief architects of branding, naming and choreographing the graphics that appear on the toy boxes. Children sometimes have no choice and essence their parents have to make a decision for them. Manufacturers and parents are directly responsible for the gender stereotyping experienced in the society today. It is, therefore, imperative to note that gender biased toys can be blamed both on the manufacturers and parents. In the past days, manufacturers did not take into consideration the branding style or what audience they were targeting with the toys. Everything that was in the toys represented the interests of the children of both genders. Later in the days, as Lepkowska notes, toys got different meanings altogether (Lepkowska, 1). In fact, there were some toys that were only left for the boys and the others were left for the girls. Lepkowska argues that the toys for the girls helped them manage their emotions impedance while the toys for the boys helped in improving technical skills as they advanced through the stages of adulthood. A research done to verify these claims would suggest otherwise. However, pundits have argued that the increased stereotyping by manufacturer warrants an in-depth analysis of the role of toys in gender gaps experienced in the society today (Day, 1). The manufacturers of toys are to take responsibility in the increased gender gaps with respect to their production and final delivery to the market. There are those toys that are produced that are

SSDD Forensics Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

SSDD Forensics Issues - Essay Example The logical acquisition approach is based on acquiring a logical bit-by-bit copy of the directories and various types of files (address files) found within the iPhone file system. But, Physical acquisition implies a bit-by-bit copy of an entire physical store (e.g., a memory chip). Logical backups are considered a rich source of data files that can help build evidence. They can also provide proof of the pairing relationship between the computers that have been previously synced with the iPhone device if that computer was seized as part of the investigation. A physical acquisition has the advantage of allowing deleted files and data remnants to be examined. Physical extraction acquires information from the device by direct access to the flash memories. Generally, this is harder to achieve because the device vendors need to secure against the arbitrary reading of memory so that a device may be locked to a certain operator. The name of the backed-up folder is a long combination of forty hexadecimal numbers and characters (0-9 and a-f) and represents a unique identifier for the device from where the backup was obtained. This unique identifier appears to be a hashed value since it was the same unique name given to the backed-up folder by iTunes on both Mac and Windows operating systems. Within this folder reside hundreds of backup files with long hashed filenames consisting of forty numbers and characters. These filenames signify a unique identifier for each set of data or information copied from the iPhone memory. Backed-up data is stored in three file formats, plist files which stores data in plaintext format, mddata files which stores data in a raw binary format and info files which store encoded metadata of the corresponding binary mddata files. Figure 3 shows the Backup folder containing the backed-up files. Generally, the iPhone file system stores data in binary

Measuring Customer Satisfaction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Measuring Customer Satisfaction - Essay Example led to improved sales but has also led to increased customer satisfaction that intern leads to customer retention hence giving such businesses competitive advantage over others. On this basis, this essay will discuss the best practices used to measure customer satisfaction and further evaluate the current practices adopted by Union Pay Organization. To start with, measurement of customer satisfaction has several benefits to businesses. Measurement of customer satisfaction can be defined as a process in which businesses are able to gauge the quality of their processes as well as that of their products and services from customer feedback or other indirect means (Hayes, 2008). As a result of these measurements, businesses can be able to implement and evaluate various processes in their main objectives. For instance, through the customer feedback, businesses are able to gauge themselves against competitors and identify effective strategies that can place give them competitive advantage in the market (Grigoroudis & Siskos, 2010). Further, measurement of customer satisfaction helps to reveal changes in tastes and preferences by customers that can be used in developing products and services in order to retain existing customers and also attract new section of customers by factoring their preferences in business products or services. On the other hand, several customer measurement practices have been identified to work in various business sectors. To start with, transactional surveys have been widely used to gather information about customer satisfaction. This kind of approach is simple because it provides immediate feedback shortly after customer encounter (California Employers Association, n.d). Data collected through transactional survey may be regarded as qualitative because the kinds of responses obtained mainly include impressions of customers to general services and products relating to a particular business. Transactional surveys have advantages that can help

Most Violated School Policies Essay Example for Free

Most Violated School Policies Essay The formation of character is one of the most important features of the educational system at the University of Baguio. For this reason, the imposed discipline, while observant to the rights and feelings of others, is firm, especially when the reputation of the student body and institution is at stake. Students are expected to manifest both within and outside the University, the respect for order, morality, personal honor, and rights of others, which is required of God-fearing men and women. (UB student handbook, Article XIV: 2010 Edition) Schools have policies that are being implemented for the general welfare of its constituents. These policies provide a set of rules that the students, teachers, etc. should follow. These rules are necessary for the order and uniformity of the students within the school premises. Even with the presence of these rules, some of the students violate them disregarding the sanctions that go along with it. The word policy originated from the Latin word politia or polity. Defined as a definite course of action adopted for the sake of expediency, facility, etc.; an action or procedure conforming to or considered with reference to prudence or expediency. (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/policy) Educational policies are significant because these are rules that are used in schools to discipline students. These rules determine how effective and efficient the school is in managing students and personnel. The policies have great influence in the quality of education in an area. Educational policies are important because effective policies can help students in school on their day to day activity. For a policy to become effective, it must have a well-pronounced outcome, assumptions should be clear and explicit, linkage to organizational direction must be present, due process in the development has to be observed, the priority should be on the public interest, expectations have to be made, the policy must be both efficient and effective, results should be stated in measurable terms, evaluation of results should be capable, funding and allocation of resources must be appropriate, accountability should not be vague, it should be lawful and administered, it must be based from history, ideas have to be verified before implementation, and the policy results should be well stated. (http://manuals.ucdavis.edu/resources/coordinators.htm) One of the factors why students violate school policies can be explained through their different behaviours. Behaviour is the manner of behaving or conducting oneself; the aggregate of all the responses made by an organism in any situation. (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/behavior) Based on Operant Conditioning of B.F. Skinner â€Å"All behaviour caused by external stimuli and all behaviour can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.† It means that the actions done by students are responses to its environment. (http://www.learning-theories.com/behaviorism) Another type of behaviourism is Radical Behaviourism which is the connection to role of emotions and the major differences in the acceptance of mediating structures and etc. In order to resolve this problem the group found out that the best solution is the use of Biometric identification systems which can be grouped based on the main physical characteristic that lends itself to biometric identification. There are different kinds of biometric system in which the fingerprint biometrics is the commonly used one. There are also other biometric identification systems such as the hand geometry, palm vein authentication, retina scan, iris scan, face recognition, signature, and voice analysis. There are biometric systems that are composed of more than two physical characteristics to be identified. Statement of the Problem 1) What are the reasons why these students violate such policies? 2) What are the most common policies that are violated by the violators? 3) How can the proposed biometric ID system control students from violating the wearing of ID? Scope and Delimitation This proposal was limited only to the students of the University of Baguio including the administrative staff, teachers, faculty and utilities. Significance of the Study With the help of this proposal, the University of Baguio would be able to control every entrance and exit of the school. The act of not wearing IDs for the students would no longer be possible because they will not be able to enter the school without their IDs. The biometric ID system would strengthen the security of the academe for the safety of the students. The time when the students would enter and leave their classes would be monitored. The system would be able to determine if the students will skip their classes. Also, the entry of thieves and pick-pocketers within the school premises would no longer be possible due to this proposal. With this modernized system to be established in the University, all of the students and personnel of the school will benefit from it. FRAMEWORK The leniency of the marshals in checking the ID’s and proper wearing of uniforms, students not following the rules and regulation of the school and to monitor the entrance and exit of the students of University of Baguio within the school’s vicinity are the reasons why the researchers proposed an ID Biometric System. The students violated the above mentioned rules due to leniency, habitual actions of students, laziness, and unwanted behaviours of students. Some students just wanted to violate such policies because they thought that it was a fun and interesting thing to do. If the proposed project will be fully implemented, there will be organization in the school campus and an effective monitoring of the passage ways in entering and going out of the school. Based on these factors that we have retrieved on the data that we have collected, the theory that would best support our proposal is the belief theory. We chose this theory because we, the researchers, believe that the proposed biometric ID system will work and we will therefore translate these beliefs into action. The researchers foresee that this would be able to control the reoccurring problems that are being done by the University of Baguio students and that is the reason why we have made this very proposal. DEFINITION OF TERMS * Biometric – pertaining to, noting, or using a person’s unique physical and other traits for the purpose of identification and security. * Coincide –to occupy exactly corresponding or equivalent positions on a scale or in a series * Identification – psychological orientation of the self in regard to something (as a person or group) with a resulting feeling of close emotional association. * Implementation – the act of implementing, or putting into effect. * Policy – a definite course of method of action selected from among alternatives and in light of given conditions to guide and determine present and future decisions. * Proposal – An act of putting forward or stating something for consideration. * Scanner – a device sensing a recorded data. * System –a group of devices or artificial objects or an organization forming a network especially for distributing something or serving common purpose. * Units – a piece or complex apparatus serving to perform one particular function ASSUMPTION The group assumed that if the proposal is to be approved by the Board of Directors, it would be implemented immediately. The ordered units will be put up to the designated areas and the Biometric system will start functioning. With the new system of the school, there will be an organization in school activities. The school then will be a safe and humane place to study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERARTURE I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY In the millennial years rapidly advancing technological world, the issue of security is becoming a more and more pressing matter. Computer crimes and identity theft related crimes are becoming more rampant and apparent, requiring better solutions to cope with them. One of the proposed methods for solution for future high-technology security issues lies in the field of biometrics. Biometrics defined simply in its regard to security matters is any method or technology which uses biological measurements to facilitate authentication for verification or identification of a particular user. Although still in major phases of development, biometrics is seen as a highly valuable initiative to one day replace present day security authentication practices due to its ideal concept of being virtually risk free and non-inaccurate. This paper will analyze all aspects concerning biometrics including its overall concept, how a biometrical authentication system works, controversial issues concerning its implementation, its current uses in technology, business, and governmental agencies and its future developments. II. CONCEPT OF BIOMETRICS IN SECURITY A. TWO CATEGORIES Biometrics can be subdivided into two main categories. These include physiological and behavioral categories of specific measurements. Physiological measurements include biological characteristics inherent to individual human beings. Some of these would include facial structure, fingerprints, hand structure, iris and DNA structure of a particular person. Behavioral measurements measure dynamics in individual behaviors. Some of these would include keystroke behavior, signature and voice recognition. B. VARIOUS METHODS FOR COLLECTING MEASUREMENTS FACE: Facial recognition involves technology which scans the face and interprets the data as recognizable characteristics of a particular user, including the size and shape of the face and their relationship to each other. Facial recognition is a natural method that humans use to identify people they come into contact with, but it is not an easy method to duplicate for identification on a biometric system. This is due to changes such as plastic surgery, weight gain or weight loss which can cause the results to be inaccurate. Another emerging method of collecting biometric information involving the face is facial thermograph which detects and measures the heat patterns created by the branching blood vessels within the face and emitted through the skin. FINGERPRINT: Fingerprint analysis has been around for centuries as a means of identifying people. It has been evidenced that ancient Chinese used fingerprinting to sign legal documents as long ago as 1000 BCE. Fingerprint analysis involves examining the ridges on an individual fingerprint in order to match them to a specific owner. HAND: Hands can be analyzed and measured in a few different ways. Aside from fingerprints, another way to use hands in biometrical analysis is through hand geometry which measures and compares the different physical characteristics of a persons hand such as shape and size. Another method concerning hands is palm vein authentication which uses an infrared beam to penetrate a persons hand and measure the complexity of the vein patterns within that persons hand. This specific method is more useful than hand geometry measurement because palm vein patterns are internal to the body, and difficult to be counterfeited by an illegitimate user. EYES: Eyes can be used in two different ways as a part of a biometrical scrutiny process. Iris scanning involves analysis of the rings, furrows, and freckles in the pupil of the eye of a particular human. Retina scanning involves analysis of the capillary blood vessels located in the back of the eye. DNA: DNA verification uses analysis of genetic information found within a specific persons DNA code (or genetic code) as a means of identifying that person. DNA analysis is often used now as a method for identifying paternity of a persons child or in forensic crime investigations as a evidence for convicting individuals for crimes such as murder or rape. ODOR SCENT: Odor and scent analysis is a fairly new development in biometrical analysis and is based on a theory entitled individual odor theory. This theory is premised on the notion that each person has a particular and unique scent. In forensics, odor analysis has been used to identify people by the use of blood hounds (dogs). VOICE ANALYSIS: Voice analysis involves analyzing of the pitch, tone, cadence, and frequency of a particular users voice to facilitate authentication. Voice analysis can technically be seen as both a physiological trait as well as a behavioral trait because voice is not only inherent to a specific person, but also the way that person speaks is also a unique and measurable trait. SIGNATURE: Signature analysis analyzes the way a person writes his/her signature as a basic means of identification. Although handwriting techniques vary for individuals throughout their lifetimes, handwriting identification is seen as a scientifically reliable criterion for measurement. KEYSTROKE: Keystroke analysis measures the dynamics of a persons typing rhythms to facilitate authentication of a particular person. Keystroke analysis may be more useful than other methods of identification because unlike other biometrical authentication methods, keystroke dynamics can still be measured throughout the computer session even after the access control point has been successfully passed by the user. GAIT: Another new developing biometrical technique is one which measures gait which is a persons particular way of walking and facilitating motion. Gait can be used effectively to recognize people coming in from a distance. COGNITIVE BIOMETRICS: Cognitive biometrics is also a developing method in biometrics which uses measurements of brain activity responses when triggered by specific stimuli and matched within a computer database as a means for authentication of a particular user of the system. Currently, systems which utilize this kind of method are being created to trigger responses to odor stimuli. In the future, other triggers may be used to create responses. C. PARAMETERS Given the various methods for collecting biometrical data, each of these techniques must pass a set of parameters to a degree in order to be considered as a viable method for integration within a biometrical system. These parameters include: UNIVERSALITY: The principle of universality stipulates that every user should have the characteristic. Sometimes, in some cases this may not be true as it the case of a person with no hands who cannot use a hand analysis machine for verification. UNIQUENESS: The principle of uniqueness involves the degree of how separable the biometric characteristic is between each individual person. PERMANENCE: The principle of permanence involves how well the technique used for measuring is resistant to changes such as aging, human developmental processes such as pregnancy, or things such as plastic surgery. COLLECTABILITY: The collectability principle is related to how easy the method is to acquire. Easier methods, as well as more sanitary methods are more ideal for a viable biometrical system. PERFORMANCE: The performance principle is concerned with the accuracy, speed and the strength of the technology used to authenticate the user. ACCEPTABILITY: The acceptability principle is related to the degree of social approval for use of the technology as a means for collecting biometrical data. CIRCUMVENTION: Circumvention involves, the biometrical systems ease of adaptation to a substitute should the system need one. 1. COMPARISON OF VARIOUS METHODS WITH PARAMETERS (Based on the Comparison of Various Biometric Technologies table by A.K. Jain, et. al. 2004) FACE: Facial scanning has a high level of universality because it is virtually impossible for any living human-being to possess no form of a face. Facial scanning scores low in its level of uniqueness due to the fact that it can be difficult to distinguish characteristics from person to person at times. This is due to some people having similar features which may be hard to distinguish. In the case of identical twins, this may not be a useful means for authentication at all. Facial scanning scores a medium ranking under the permanence factor. This is due to the fact that although a persons actual facial characteristics never change, they are subject to transformations such as aging, weight gain or loss, and alterations such as plastic surgery or accidents. As far as collectability, facial scanning scores a high mark due to the fact that, going along with its high level of universality, every living human-being does have a face which is easy to locate on a human body. Facial scanning is low in performance because it can tend to be highly inaccurate due to the dynamical aspect of human faces. Facial scanning also scores high in acceptability as a comfortable and accepted way people would want to collect their biometrical data, but it scores low in circumvention because it doesnt have an easy substitute which can replace it. Facial thermograph scores high in universality, uniqueness, collectability, acceptability, and circumvention. It scores low in permanence and medium in performance. FINGERPRINT: Fingerprinting scores medium in its level of universality. This is due to the fact that although all people inherently possess fingerprints at birth, fingerprints can still be damaged via rare skin diseases or through loss of fingers, abrasions, etc. Fingerprinting has a high level of uniqueness and a high level of permanence. Fingerprinting has a medium level of collectability and performance due to the fact that although it is easy to acquire for measurement, there is a 5% failure to enroll rate which exists for everyone even with good sensors and analysis software. Fingerprinting has a medium level of acceptability by the public as a means for collecting data. This is because although it is an easy method of measurement, it may be unhygienic, inaccurate as well as easy to duplicate unlawfully. Fingerprinting has a high level of circumvention due to its ease of adaptation to a substitute if deemed necessary. HAND: Hand geometry scores medium in its universality, uniqueness, permanence, performance, acceptability, and circumvention. Hand geometry scores high in its collectability aspect. Hand vein analysis also scores medium in universality, uniqueness, permanence, collectability, performance, and acceptability; but it scores hi gh in circumvention. The overall reason why hand analysis carries a medium ranking in virtually all the parameters listed is because of a human-beings ability to live without them. EYES: Eye analysis provides for a more accurate analysis approach in a biometric system. Iris scanning scores high in universality, uniqueness, permanence, performance, and circumvention. This is due to the complexity and exclusivity of iris patterns which does make them a better choice method of biometric authentication. Iris scanning received a medium score in collectability and a low score in acceptability due to the complexity of the method and its suitability to the general masses. Retinal scanning also received similar scores, scoring high in universality, uniqueness, performance, and circumvention; receiving a medium score in permanence, and low scores in both its collectability and acceptability. DNA: DNA analysis has split results, scoring high in universality, uniqueness, permanence, and performance, and scoring low in collectability, acceptability, and circumvention. Although DNA can be extracted from a numerous amount of different ways, a method of extracting DNA in order to be used in a biometrical authentication system cannot be done without seeming invasive or unsanitary. Also, many people may be concerned with privacy matters concerning DNA analysis. ODOR SCENT: Odor and scent analysis scores high in universality, uniqueness, and permanence. Although scents can be masked by deodorants, fragrances and lotions, the underlying biological scent of a person cannot be concealed. Odor analysis also scores low in collectability, performance, and circumvention, with a medium score in acceptability. VOICE ANALYSIS: Voice analysis scores medium in its universality and collectability. It scores low scores in uniqueness, permanence, performance, and circumvention, making it not an ideal method for use in a biometrical system. This is because not only does a persons voice change throughout time, but people can knowingly change their voice or use technology to change their voice (such as a recording) in order to dupe a system. Voice analysis scores high in acceptability due to the simplicity of the method. SIGNATURE: Signature analysis scores low in universality, uniqueness, permanence, performance, and circumvention. It scores high in collectability, and acceptability. Signature analysis may not be an ideal method for authentication because although graphology experts can distinguish identities through meticulous handwriting analysis, it may be more difficult for a biometrical system to accurately analyze differences in handwriting for each individual person. This is because a persons handwriting can change depend on various things such as the mood of the person. Also some people may write similarly or use forgery to try to dupe the system. KEYSTROKE: Keystroke analysis is another method which may be seen as not as reliable as some of the other methods for collecting biometric information. Although it has the advantage of being able to simultaneously authenticate a user while he/she is still within the work session, keystroke analysis scores low for universality, uniqueness, permanence, and performance. It also has medium scores for collectability, acceptability, and circumvention. This may be due to the behavioral aspect of typing which can be easily changed if a person learns to type in different ways. GAIT: Gait scores medium in universality and circumvention. Gait has low scores in uniqueness, permanence, and performance. Gait also has high scores in collectability and acceptability. Of all the various methods for collecting biometric data, some of the most reliable methods (according to the table by A.K. Jain et. Al) are iris scanning, retinal scanning, facial thermograph, fingerprint analysis, and DNA analysis. Some of the least reliable methods are keystroke analysis, signature analysis, and voice analysis. Overall, it appears that physiological data is seen as a more reliable method for collecting data than behavioral data. III. BIOMETRIC SYSTEM A. BIOMETRIC SYSTEM A biometrical system although seemingly complicated, has only two main steps, regardless of the methodology or the technology used to facilitate it. The system begins with a process called enrollment which is when the biometric information from individual users is collected and stored within a database and translated into a code or graph. In some instances data may be stored on a smart card which can be carried away with the user. The next operation of the biometrical system is called testing. During this portion of the system, biometrical data is detected and compared with that which is in the database. In order for a biometrical system to be robust, it is necessary that the storage and retrieval of data within the system be highly secured. (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Biometric_system_diagram.png/800px-) A biometrical system can carry out two main functions. These include verification or identification. In verification, the systems objective is to authenticate the user in conjunction with another method such as a smart card, a username, or a password. With identification, the systems intention is to authenticate the user only on the basis of the biometrical data alone. The goal of this function is to identify the user according to the closest match within the allowable limit of the system. B. PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENTS The performance of a biometric systems technology can be broken down into a variety of probability descriptions. These descriptions indicate the level of accuracy the system is able to achieve. FAR- The first measurement is entitled False Accept Rate. This measurement determines the likeliness of a biometric system incorrectly accepting access to the system by an un-authorized user. This measurement is calculated by dividing the number of false acceptances by the number of times an identification attempt has been made. FRR- The second measurement is called a False Rejection Rate which measures the probability that a biometric system will incorrectly reject an authorized user from using the system. This number is calculated by dividing the number of false rejections by the number of authentication attempts. EER- Equal error rate stands for the rate at which FAR and FRR are equal. This measurement can be used to compare two different biometric systems. Whichever biometric system has a lower EER is considered to be a more accurate system than the other. ROC- Receiver operating characteristics deals with the systems accuracy within certain environments as it relates to False Rejection and False Acceptance Rate results. FTE- FTE stands for failure to enroll rate. This measurement is calculated as a percentage of the data which failed to pass through the system due to invalidity. Failure to enroll typically happens when the sample data is of poor quality and does not match the data which is stored in the database of the system. FTC- FTC is the failure to capture rate. This measurement measures the probability that the system will fail to pick up on a biometric characteristic when it is presented accurately. High calculations of this measurement typically mean that this authentication method will be difficult as well as frustrating to use. C. SUSCEPTIBLE AREAS OF ATTACK FOR BIOMETRICS The three most susceptible areas of vulnerability for attack of a biometric system are: 1) Copied-biometric attacks- where the attacker obtains a substitute for the true biometric sample in order to cause proper authentication to occur via the normal system procedures. 2) Replay attacks- where perpetrators obtain valid templates from the original user and then use them to directly dupe the biometric system. 3) Database attacks- where perpetrators access a template database and obtain the ability to replace valid templates with invalid ones. IV. ISSUES WITH BIOMETRICS A. IDENTITY THEFT ISSUE Although the ideal goal of biometrical authentication is to have ultimate prevention of identity theft, the issue of an illegitimate user having the ability to commit identity theft still exists within biometrics and can have even more dire circumstances than with non-biometrical authentication systems. Depending on the method used to collect the biometrical data, a persons identity can be stolen easily. An example of this would be in the case of fingerprints which can be taken from inanimate objects such as glassware or metal objects and then duplicated in order to be used to dupe a biometrical system. The main problem concerning this issue is in the fact that if an individuals identification is stolen by another, the legitimate user may never be able to undo the damage which has been created because, unlike with non-biometrical authentication, once biometrical data has been compromised, it is compromised for the entirety of the legitimate users existence. One proposed possible solution for solving the issue of identity theft is to only use a portion of the biometric data, so that if the data does become compromised, it will not be entirely lost. This way, if one part of the data is stolen, another part of the original users biometric data can be used to replace it. B. PRIVACY ISSUE Privacy can also be a staggering issue with the implementation of a biometrical system from a societal standpoint. Many people may not care to have all of their biological characteristics recorded on some medium for a variety of reasons. One concern is that if information is recorded on systems used at more than one location or by more than one entity, an individuals movements can be tracked preventing anonymity. Safety of the legitimate users can become compromised, if malevolent individuals choose to target that person in order to obtain their goal. Another issue regarding privacy involves physical harm which can be done to an individual using a biometrical system. Physical harm can occur by use of unsanitary instruments used in the technology to obtain the biometrical information, which may cause the system to be considered unsafe. Another issue regarding privacy lies with the administrative ability to misuse users biometrical data without the consent of those users. Currently, few regulations exist to protect biometric information of individuals. C. SENSOR OBSTACLES Different types of technology (hardware software) used within different biometrical systems can counteract one another, making it difficult to have standardized biometrical data. One of the reasons this problem exists is because each vendor of biometrical technology generates their own encryption methods for the recorded information. Unfortunately, many of these encryption methods do not coincide with one another making the use of biometrical systems more difficult and less efficient. The only way unification of the different biometrical systems can occur is by a standardizing process which would require exposing of all the concealed data. Unfortunately, this can also present a serious threat. D. FAILURE TO MEET PARAMETERS Another issue concerning implementation of biometrics is in the issue of a systems failure to meet parameters. In order for biometrical data to be interminable, the biological characteristic must be unique, universal, acceptable, collectible, reliable in regards to the performance and circumvention of the technology used to collect the data, but most importantly, the data must be permanent, which is the most fragile issue concerning the parameters of biometrical data. Unfortunately, most if not all biological characteristics are not guaranteed to be permanent. Many of them can be compromised via accidents, health problems or alterations such as surgery. V. CURRENT USES OF BIOMETRICS Although the field of biometrics as a whole is still in need of major development before widespread implementation will ever occur there are some entities including private industry and governmental agencies which currently utilize biometrical technology. Certain examples of American organizations which currently use biometric technology include: 1) Walt Disney World: Walt Disney World uses fingerprint analysis technology to authenticate the fingerprints of guests in order to ensure that season tickets are used by the authorized ticket owner. This is in order to prevent lost sales through ticket sharing, as well as thefts. 2) First Tech Credit Union: First Tech Credit Union is an Oregon based credit union which utilizes keystroke recognition technology for authentication of users on its online website. 3) Casinos: Over 100 American casinos such as the Imperial Palace casino in Las Vegas use facial recognition technology to identify and prevent known cheaters or dishonest patrons from entering into their establishments. 4) Missing Childrens Clearinghouse: A West Virginia based organization entitled Missing Childrens Clearinghouse uses biometric technology which utilizes scanned digital photographs to search for missing children. 5) Citibank Singapore: Citibank in Singapore uses fingerprint scanning technology for customers who use their clear platinum card for point-of-sale purchases. 6) Coca Cola: Coca Cola uses hand scanning machines to replace time cards for employees in order to document worker time keepinsg records. 7) Welfare crack-down: New Jersey as well as six other states use biometric technology to crack down on individuals who abuse the welfare system by claiming benefits in multiple names. 8) Notebooks: Computer products such as the Compaq Armada E500 are being developed to use fingerprint scanning technology to verify the identity of the user. 9) Prisons: Up to 100 American Prisons use biometric technology to regulate methadone dispersement among prisoners. VI. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN BIOMETRICS Since the occurrence of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, a surge in the demand for biometric technology has begun. Stocks in publically trade biometric companies such as Visionics, Viisage Technology, and Indentix have soared with the overall biometric technology industry projected to have revenues approaching $10 billion dollars annually by 2020. Emerging trends for future uses of biometric technology seem to lean more towards law enforcement, homeland security, and security within certain types of private industry such as in airport security or finance. Many credit card companies such as Mastercard and Visa are beginning to implement biometric authentication methods to verify card users. Also, the Immigration and Naturalization Service may begin implementing biometric technologies to identify illegal immigrants. Certain types of biometric technology which are becoming more widespread include access control facial recognition technology which is used to permit only authorized individuals to enter upon certain facilities, facial recognition passive surveillance technology which is used to monitor premises in order to identify possible terrorists or suspect individuals, and alert management which includes the use of real-time technology in association with biometric technology to provide security alerts of potential security breaches. Applications which use biometric technology will also have an effect on commerce, particularly in e-commerce to provide extra security for online purchases, and installation within certain personal items such as cars and cell phones. VII. CONCLUSION Although not that long ago, the concept of having biometric technology as a part of our mainstream society may have been seen as a science-fictional impossibility, technological innovation has grown to the point where it is becoming more and more of a reality. Although we are not quite ready for widespread implementation of this technology, as the need for better hi-tech security increases, research as well as investor and consumer confidence and innovation within the biometric industry is also expected to improve. Although no single biometric system method is without flaws, combinations of these various methods and technologies may provide the ideal security that we hope to attain one day. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY There was difficulty in determining the real students of the University of Baguio because of the hard-headed students who cannot abide with the simple rules and regulations which was the reoccurring problems of the security. Due to this problem, the â€Å"mandos† and â€Å"magnas† can easily enter the school’s premises victimizing a lot of students. This was one of the reasons why such simple violations became a huge problem for the school. Regarding this matter, the group came up with an idea for a topic for their action research. Before they finalize their topic, the group went to the Office of the Student Affairs and interviewed the dean to know which rules are commonly violated by the students. After the interview, the group determined that the rules which are commonly violated are: a) wearing of I.Ds inside the school campus; and b) wearing of uniforms on the designated days. The group then convened and finalized their topic that would focus on â€Å"A proposed Biometric ID system to control the reoccurring violations by University of Baguio students.† Since there was already a topic to be talked about in the research, the group started to gather data which were relevant to the research proper like that of related studies and researches and terms that are significant to the study. After collecting relevant information for the research, the group prepared communication letters addressed to the deans of the different schools of the University and respondents likewise with the survey questionnaire. Upon approval of the deans of the different schools, the group administered the questionnaires to the respondents. The survey forms were distributed to the eleven schools of the University having ten (10) respondents each to see which results have the same percentage which were used to know the reasons behind these actions. After distributing the survey questionnaires, the group then retrieve the questionnaires and start tabulating the results. The tabulated data showed the reasons why the students violate these simple policies of the school. The result of the survey supported the proposal that were passed to the Board of Directors. The group then proposed the biometric ID system that will be put up in every entrances and exits of the buildings in the University. The biometric ID system will most likely be very costly but disregarding such amount, the administration will approve it and immediately ordered the said system. By the time the systems that had been ordered arrive, the people designated by the higher ops will put up such systems on the designated areas to make the University a safe and humane place to study. CONCLUSION In light of the findings, the following conclusions are hereby presented: Not wearing of ID has been a habit of the students. Sometimes the teachers themselves forget to check their students ID. The security guard also are not lenient in checking the IDs of these students. Because of this attitude most number of the student no longer uses their IDs. The students think that it is just fine not use their IDs. The researchers are found out that the school really need a biometric ID system. Approximately, one unit of the biometric system will cost more or less two hundred fifty thousand pesos. In such case the University of Baguio can still afford this system since it does not only help the students but it can also secure their safety With the help of this proposal it will lessen the burden of the security personnel. This proposal can also lessen the number of students violating the proper use of IDs. In such situation students can no longer use any ID because of the presence of finger prints. The students whether they like it or not would still be forced to use their IDs. Also, this proposal can help in the security of the school campus because outsiders can no longer come in because of the presence of finger prints. RECOMMENDATION Drawing from the conclusions that the researchers arrived at, the following recommendations are forwarded. The researchers would recommend the strict implementation of the rules and regulations of the university and the maintenance of the biometric ID system. In addition, each of the gates should be closed. Also, the lenient checking on the wearing of IDs should be done. The guards should monitor every student entering the university. In case the students lost their IDs, we recommend that a password that would allow them to enter would be provided by the OSA during the time of the ID’s loss. BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS * Addiction Today, Sept. 27, 2008. Prisons Use Biometrics to Manage Methadone. * Germain, Jack M., Sept. 11, 2003. Beyond Biometrics: New Strategies for Security. * New York Times, Nov. 15, 2008. Technology and Media, a Surge in the Demand to use Biometrics. * Osborn, Alice, Aug. 17, 2005. Future of Biometrics-Trends and Emerging Uses for Biometric Technology. * Panko, Raymond R., Corporate Computer and Network Security. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2004. * Risk Management, Mar. 15, 2005. Biometrics: The Future is Now. * Technology and Human Values Senior Seminar, 2008. Biometrics. * Tilton, Catherine J., Feb. 2006. The Role of Biometrics in Enterprise Security. * Wikepedia, Nov. 13, 2008. Biometrics.† ONLINE * http://www.addictiontoday.org/addictiontoday/2008/09/prisons-use-bio.html. * http://www.ecommercetimes.com/story/31547.html?wlc=1226777438 * .http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F06E0DB163EF934A25751C1A9679C8B63sec=spon=pagewanted=1 * http://www.video-surveillance-guide.com/future-of-biometrics.htm * http://www.riskmanagementmagazine.com.au/articles/FF/0C02DDFF.asp?Type=124Category=1240 * http://www.dell.com/downloads/global/power/ps1q06-20050132-Tilton-OE.pdf . * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biometrics#cite_note-jain_short_article-20 .

Factors That Underpin The Hr Planning

Factors That Underpin The Hr Planning Human resource planning is a very important task for any organization. This planning plays a vital role in managing the employees of the organization. This plan helps to meet the required human resources of any organization. Actually it helps to identify what type of employees, how many employees will be required in the organization. It also provides information about the sources of required human resource need of the organization. These are some business factors that underpin human resource planning in a organization. Some important factors are explained below. Nature of business Size of the business Type of business Management policy Resource of the business Organization culture Location of the business Business environment Human Resource Requirements in given situation Human Resource (HR) is an important part for any organization. It is part and parcel for every organization. An organization cannot do anything without Human Resource. The success and failure of an organization mostly depends on the successfully implementation of the Human Resource policies and programs. The reason is that most of the organizational goal is achieved through it. If any organization is not so care about human resource department it must suffer in the long run. So before planning Human Resource (HR) requirements of any firm it must have to be given very much emphasis. Human Resource (HR) is must for every department of a firm. A firm usually has many departments. It is very much essential to manage Human Resource in every department. Without Human Resource (HR) it is probably impossible to manage day to day activities of the firm. It includes from the bottom level to the top level of the firm. Generally the bottom level HR implements the decision taken by the top level management. For example if we analyze HR requirements of a production oriented firm or manufacturing firm we will see that there needs a wide range of human resource. There must have some top level executives who formulate plan for production departments. There also have some middle level and lower level human resource who will implement the plan formulate by the top level executives. Development of HR plan for an organization: Once the analysis of the required personnel is complete, then the HR planning can begin. HR planning consists of four phases that are described below: Phase1. Formulation It is very important that the HR department of an organization should have direct relation with the rest of the department. Every organization has vision objectives. This vision statement indicates the overall image of the firms. For planning HR in an organization the first step is formulation of the policy about the HR needs of various departments. Phase2. Development It is the second phase of the HR planning in an organization in this step a SWOT analysis is conducted to identify the overall strength, weakness, opportunities and threats. This SWOT analysis provides important outlook about what action should need in future to cope with the changing environment by correctly planning the required human resource in the organization. The SWOT analysis provides answer about the following question; What about internal strengths? What about internal weaknesses? What is the opportunity? What are the external threats? The topics that are included in the SWOT Analysis might include personnel capabilities, benefit, employee services, information management systems, official facilities, and the reputation of human resources within the organization. Phase3 .Implementation It is short-term objectives which should be established In order to complete long-term strategies in the firm. Short-term objectives are the objectives that can be accomplished within six months to one year. This short term objectives should be fulfill by short term goal. On the other hand long term objectives should be fulfilling by long term goal. It should be remembered that no short term objectives is fulfill by long term goal and vice versa. Phase 4. Evaluation HR planning should be evaluated in regular basis. Human resource planning must reflect the target based on the measurable items. Once the human resource planning is done, it is essential to evaluate the success of that planning. If there is any mistake found, necessary steps should be taken in an urgent manner. There are two common ways in which we can measure the success of the plan: such as time and budget. How HRM contribute to meet objectives of organization: Human resource plan plays very vital role in meeting the organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s objectives. Actually organization does mean employees of the organization rather than organization itself. Objectives of any organization are achieved by the employees of that organization. One organization can be differentiated from other organizations by the performances of employees of respective organization. Because we can see that different organizations perform differently and make different level of profit in the same industry only for human resource. Human resource plan has other plans to meet the objectives of the organization. Human resource plan has the following plans: Personnel planning indicate the process of deciding what positions the organizations will have to fill and how to fill them. Training and development plan is developed to make the employees of the organization skilled necessary to perform better and increase the efficiency level that ultimately contributes to meeting t he objectives. Compensation plan is another vital part of human resource plan. It is very important because the performance of the employees depends on the satisfaction level and employees are the ultimate performers. Strategic compensation plan helps to the organization to hire high quality employees and retain them. Labor relation plan is also required for some certain reasons. It is required to maintain good relation with labor union to meet any unexpected situation. Sometimes labors strike and this hampers the normal business operations of the organization. Sometimes it is required to reach an agreement wage, working hours etc. Security and safety plan provides the security of the jobs of employees, which ultimately makes the employees more satisfied. Satisfied employees perform better for the organization. Personnel forecast means estimating the required number of employees on the basis of production volume or expected revenues. Variation in forecasting is very costly for the o rganization. In fact Human resource planning creates value by engaging activities that produce the employee behaviors that company needs to achieve organizational goals and objectives. So all these plans under human resource planning help the organization to meet the objectives of the organization more efficiently. Impact of organizational structure and culture on management of HR Organizational structure and also organizational culture have certainly some impact on the management of human resource of the organization. Actually human resource management is the policy and practices involved in carrying out the human resource aspects of a management position including recruiting, training, appraising and compensating employees and also it is concerned about labor relations, health, safety and fairness. In fact, the size of the human resource department reflects the size of the organization. Large organization generally have large human resource department and small organizations have small human resource department with few employees. It is generally found that there is one Hr employee for every 100 employees. So organizational structure affects the management of human resource of an organization. Organizational culture also has some impact on the management of human resource of any business organization. If human resource department works as an independent body it can produce better benefit for the organization. If independence is the culture of an organization in case of decision making, it is helpful for the human resource department to make wise decision. So we can conclude that a fair practice in the organization makes the management of human resources more effective and fruitful for the organization. Monitoring the effectiveness of HRM The failure or success of an organization largely depends on the HRM policies. The higher authority of an organization make HR plan and programs. This plan is implemented by the HR manager and the working level management. The HR manger also make plan for the human resource. It includes conducting job analysis, planning labor needs and requirements of the job candidates, selecting job candidates, orienting and training new employees, managing wages and salaries, providing incentives and benefits, appraising performances, communicating( interviewing, counseling, disciplining) , training and developing manager and building employment commitment. All these plans are prepared and implemented by the HR specialists. After implementing this plan, the HR specialists monitor to see what it impact on the organizational performances. For example the HR specialist wants to know whether they hire the right people for the right position after analyzing the performances of the employees. If the per formances are not satisfactory, HR specialist or manager arrange raining programs to teach the employees, so that they can perform better. If after all these efforts, performances are not satisfactory the HR manager can fire the employees from the organization. They also manage various incentives to the employees to get better service by satisfying them. After all the HR specialists always monitor the task performed by the employees and measure the effectiveness of the HRM policies prepared by them. Recommendations: it is clear to us that without planning and implementing a right HR policy in an organization, it is not possible to achieve the target. If the HR policy is not properly installed, the overall efforts will fail in vain. So it should be given the top most priority. We have some recommendation regarding HRM policies for any kind of organization which want to achieve success through imparting it. Some recommendations are as follows: Making clear plan on HRM Hire the right people Use right selection tools Training employees based on need Not committing unfair labor practice Increasing employees loyalty through participation Conclusion: Human resource management is very essential and effective for maintaining an organization in a prudent manner. The most success of an organization depends on the appropriate HR policy. Human resource plan plays very vital role in meeting the organizationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s objectives. So every organization gives more emphasis for selecting the right people for the right position. After all it is most useful for any firm to implement the HR policy in prudent manner. Both long and short term objectives should be meet through it in accordance with the required necessity.

Democracy in Athens | Essay

Democracy in Athens | Essay Where did the real power lie in Athens’ radical democracy? Fifth-century, Athenian democracy has often served as a paradigm for democratic radicalism: from the French and American Revolutions to contemporary Anarchist Thought. And yet, the historical reality of the Athenian constitution may have been very different to what modern ideologues have envisaged. Was Athenian democracy truly a ‘rule by the many’, as the Greek word suggests? Or did the upper classes maintain their grasp over ‘real power’ down to the 4th century? This serious tension is exemplified in two contrasting passages in Thucydides’ narrative. In the so-called ‘Funeral Oration’, Thucydides has his Pericles proudly declare that ‘our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people’[1]; but a few chapters later Thucydides will turn this statement on its head by claiming that ‘in what was nominally a democracy power was really in the hands of one man’ : Pericles himself[2]. This essay will argue that although ‘real power’ did indeed reside with the demos, in practice a special position was reserved for wealthy citizens who would dominate the assembly as orators. Democracy first emerged in the end of the 6th century as a reaction to ‘stasis’ or civil strife[3]. The Cleisthenic reforms of 508-7 BC resulted in an isonomic constitution, founded on ten new tribes and the reorganization of Attica in demes, while the assembly, archons, Council of Areopagus and Heliaea still functioned as they had done under Solon and Peisistratus. The new council of 500, based on the 10 tribes, was now gradually replacing the aristocratic institution of the Areopagus, while the extensive use of lot in selecting the officials, emphasized the equality of all citizens, who now enjoyed equal political rights in the election of officials whether at the deme level (demarche), the tribal level (general) or the state level (archons and councillors). Democratic reforms continued throughout the 5th century. In 501/0 the importance of the archonships was greatly reduced by the introduction of the ten strategoi (generals). By 487 archons were selected by lot, whil e in 462 the democratic leader Ephialtes was assassinated for his involvement in further weakening the jurisdiction of the Areopagus[4]. Soon after, Pericles will introduce political pay of jurors and other officials while even the chief archonships were now opened to smallholders and -at least in theory- to the thetes. In post-Periclean Athens, a new generation of wealthy non-aristocrats like Cleon, Hyperbolus and Androcles dominated the Athenian political scene as ‘champions of the people’ and promoted further the interests of the Athenian masses. The Athenian constitution of the middle and late 5th century was therefore a genuinely popular constitution, a form of government that was primarily concerned with improving the welfare of the citizen mass. The Athenian demos was empowered with direct voting in the Assembly and the popular jury-courts, by raising hands, drawing ballots, or inscribing on ostraca. They enjoyed political liberty, freedom of speech and equality before the law. The people –rather than the Areopagus- were directly responsible for the examination  of one’s conduct while in office[5]. With respect to foreign policy, democratic Athens embarked on a staunched imperialistic policy which entailed significant benefits for the citizen mass. Measures such as state pay for jurors, Assembly members and sailors, the cleruchies, the liturgies and the eisphorae imposed on the rich, were tantamount to an indirect form of redistribution of state funds to the lower classes. Yet in practice the Athenian democracy retained a hint of elitism throughout its long history. Politicians -democrats and oligarchs alike- were always members of the upper classes of Athenian society. Cleisthenes, Alcibiades and Pericles himself were all members of the Alcmeonid family, one of the oldest and most illustrious ‘gene’ of Attica. And even ‘new men’ like Cleon and Hyperbolus or even Demosthenes were wealthy enough to afford the appropriate rhetorical education provided by the sophists. While the wider demos would exercise its political power by voting for or against the issue at stake, it was always men from the propertied classes that would put forth a proposal or move a decree. As a consequence Athenian politics tended to be personal rather than ideological, revolving around personal charisma and rhetorical skills rather than party organization[6]. This explains the typical view expressed by conservatives such as Thucydides, Aristophanes and Pl ato that the demos was always being ‘led’ by the ‘rhetores’: led wisely under Pericles, and led astray by his ‘lesser’ successors[7]. While acknowledging the special role played by these wealthy Athenians vis-à  -vis the citizen mass one should dismiss the oligarchic view of the Athenian demos as a naà ¯ve, passive spectator of the rhetorical skills of its leaders as an exaggeration. Athenian Assemblies were proverbially harsh in holding their leaders responsible for failures. One should think of the aftermath of Arginusai in 406 BC and the fate of Thucydides himself[8]. Even Pericles’ own political career was far from rosy. As one reads through Plutarch’s ‘Life of Pericles’ the Thucydidean concept of Athens as ‘essentially the rule by one man’ seems less and less plausible. Pericles, his wife and his protà ©gà ©s, Pheidias and Anaxagoras, were repeatedly -and often successfully- prosecuted by political opponents like Thucydides son of Melesias[9]; his sons were never granted an Athenian citizenship despite his passionate plea before the Assembly; and a fine was imposed o n him when the invading Spartans pillaged most other country estates but not his[10]. Unfair as these measures may sound, they demonstrate that even the ‘Olympian’ was susceptible to the fierce criticism of the Ecclesia. The Athenian demos was not only one of the most powerful citizen bodies in the Greek world; it was also the most experienced and demanding when it came to judging personalities, abstract concepts, law cases, policy recommendations or even theatrical plays. Politicians could come and go but the Athenians knew that the final word would always rest with the demos. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hornblower, S. (2002): ‘The Greek World: 479-323 BC’, New York: Routledge. Meiggs, R. (1999): ‘The Athenian Empire’, Oxford: Oxford University Press. D. Lewis [ed.](1988): ‘A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions’, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Wilcken, U. (1962): ‘Griechshe Geschichte: im Rahmen der Altertumsgeschichte, Mà ¼nchen. Plutarch, ‘Life of Kimon’, Bernadotte Perrin [trans] available in the Perseus Digital Library, at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Cim.:chapter=1:section=1 accessed on 15.03.2006. Plutarch, ‘Life of Pericles’, Bernadotte Perrin [trans] available in the Perseus Digital Library, at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Per.:chapter=1:section=1, accessed on 15.03.2006. (Pseudo-)Aristotle, ‘The Athenian Constitution’, G. Kenyon [trans], available in the Perseus Digital Library, at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0046query=head%3D%2316, accessed on 15.03.2006. Thucydides, ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’, original and translation in G. P. Goold [ed], Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998. 1 Footnotes [1] Thucydides, II. 43 [2] ibid., II. 65. [3] For the relation between stasis and democratic reforms see Pseudo-Aristotle, 20.1: ‘Cleisthenes, getting the worse of the party struggle, attached the people to his following by proposing to give political power to the masses’. [4] For the weakening of the Areopagus see Plutarch, ‘LÄ ±fe of Kimon’, 15 and Aeschelus, ‘Oresteia’; for dating the introduction of the lot see Hornblower (2002:25) and Meiggs Lewis(1988:89-94); for the first recorded instance of a paid council see Thucydides, VIII, 69. [5] All greek words in brackets are taken from Pericles’ Funeral Oration. [6] Hornblower (2002:25) [7] Thucydides, II. 65 [8] ibid. IV, 104-7 [9] Plutarch, ‘Life of Pericles’, 32 [10] Thucydides, II. 65